American History Unit 2 Study Guide

American History Unit 2 Study Guide: From Revolution to Reconstruction

This comprehensive study guide covers key concepts and events in American History Unit 2, typically encompassing the period from the American Revolution to Reconstruction. We'll explore the significant changes, challenges, and triumphs that shaped the young nation and laid the groundwork for the America we know today. This guide is designed to help you understand the crucial themes, major figures, and lasting impacts of this transformative era.

The American Revolution: Seeds of Independence

The American Revolution (1775-1783) wasn't a spontaneous uprising but the culmination of growing tensions between Great Britain and its thirteen American colonies. Understanding the underlying causes is crucial to grasping the revolution's significance.

Causes of the American Revolution:

• Mercantilism and Taxation: British mercantilist policies, designed to benefit the mother country, led to resentment among colonists who felt unfairly burdened by taxes like the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. The cry of "No taxation without representation" encapsulated this central grievance.
• Restriction of Colonial Rights: British attempts to tighten control over colonial trade and governance, including the Intolerable Acts passed after the Boston Tea Party, fueled colonial resistance. These acts were seen as direct infringements on colonial liberties.
• Enlightenment Ideals: Philosophers like John Locke, with his ideas of natural rights and the social contract, profoundly influenced colonial thinking, providing a philosophical justification for rebellion against an unjust government. The concept of popular sovereignty—the idea that government derives its legitimacy from the consent of the governed—became a cornerstone of revolutionary ideology.
• Growing Colonial Identity: Decades of relative autonomy fostered a distinct American identity separate from British identity. Colonists developed their own political institutions, economies, and social structures, making the idea of subservience to Britain increasingly unacceptable.

Key Figures and Events:

• Key Patriots: George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Patrick Henry were pivotal leaders who championed the cause of independence. Their diverse talents and unwavering commitment propelled the revolutionary movement.
• Significant Battles: Battles like Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, Saratoga (a turning point securing French alliance), and Yorktown (the decisive final battle) played critical roles in shaping the course of the war.
• The Declaration of Independence (1776): This landmark document, primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson, articulated the philosophical justifications for independence, emphasizing natural rights, popular sovereignty, and the right to revolution.

Outcomes of the American Revolution:

The American victory resulted in the creation of an independent United States of America. However, the path to nationhood was far from smooth, as the new nation faced numerous challenges in establishing a stable and effective government.

The Articles of Confederation and the Weaknesses of the First Government

The Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1777 and ratified in 1781, served as the first constitution of the United States. However, its inherent weaknesses ultimately led to its replacement by the United States Constitution.

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation:

• Weak Central Government: The Articles created a weak central government with limited powers, lacking the authority to effectively tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. This resulted in a lack of national unity and economic instability.
• Lack of Executive and Judicial Branches: The absence of a strong executive branch to enforce laws and a judicial branch to interpret them further hampered the government's effectiveness.
• Unicameral Legislature: The unicameral (one-house) legislature required unanimous consent for amendments, making it difficult to adapt to changing circumstances.
• Interstate Disputes: The lack of a strong central government led to conflicts between states over trade, territory, and other issues, highlighting the need for a more unified system.
• Economic Instability: The inability to effectively tax and regulate commerce resulted in significant economic problems, including inflation and interstate trade disputes. Shay's Rebellion, a farmer uprising in Massachusetts in 1786-1787, dramatically exposed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger national government.

The Constitutional Convention and the Creation of a New Government

The weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation led to calls for a stronger national government, culminating in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. This gathering of delegates from twelve of the thirteen states (Rhode Island did not participate) resulted in the drafting of the United States Constitution.

Key Compromises at the Constitutional Convention:

The convention involved significant compromises to balance the interests of large and small states, as well as Northern and Southern states.

• The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Resolved the dispute between large and small states by creating a bicameral legislature (two houses): a House of Representatives with proportional representation based on population, and a Senate with equal representation for each state.
• The Three-Fifths Compromise: Addressed the issue of representation and taxation of enslaved people, counting each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for purposes of apportionment in the House of Representatives. This compromise was morally reprehensible but politically necessary to achieve ratification.
• The Commerce Compromise: Granted Congress the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce but prohibited the taxation of exports. This compromise was crucial in securing Southern support for the Constitution.

Principles of the Constitution:

The Constitution established a system of government based on several key principles:

• Federalism: Divides power between the national and state governments.
• Separation of Powers: Divides governmental power among three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial.
• Checks and Balances: Each branch of government has the power to limit the actions of the other two branches.
• Republicanism: Emphasizes representative government and popular sovereignty.
• Limited Government: The government's power is restricted by the Constitution.

Ratification of the Constitution:

The Constitution was not automatically accepted. It required ratification by at least nine of the thirteen states. The debate over ratification involved Federalists, who supported the Constitution, and Anti-Federalists, who opposed it due to concerns about the balance of power and the lack of a bill of rights. The promise to add a Bill of Rights ultimately secured ratification.

The Bill of Rights and the Early Republic

The Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, was added in 1791 to address Anti-Federalist concerns about protecting individual liberties. These amendments guarantee fundamental rights, including freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and the right to bear arms.

Key Amendments of the Bill of Rights:

• First Amendment: Guarantees freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.
• Second Amendment: Guarantees the right to bear arms.
• Fourth Amendment: Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.
• Fifth Amendment: Guarantees due process of law, protection against self-incrimination, and double jeopardy.
• Sixth Amendment: Guarantees the right to a speedy and public trial.
• Eighth Amendment: Prohibits cruel and unusual punishment.

The Early Republic and the Rise of Political Parties:

The early years of the republic saw the emergence of two dominant political parties: the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson. These parties held differing views on the role of government, the economy, and foreign policy.

The Era of Westward Expansion

The 19th century witnessed significant westward expansion, driven by the quest for land, resources, and opportunity. This expansion, however, came at a great cost to Native Americans, whose lands and cultures were systematically disrupted and destroyed.

Manifest Destiny:

The belief in Manifest Destiny—the idea that the United States was destined to expand its dominion and spread democracy across the North American continent—fueled westward expansion. This ideology, while promoting national growth, justified the displacement and oppression of Native American populations.

Key Events in Westward Expansion:

• Louisiana Purchase (1803): Doubled the size of the United States, opening vast territories for exploration and settlement.
• Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806): Explored the newly acquired Louisiana Territory, mapping routes and gathering information about the land and its inhabitants.
• Mexican-American War (1846-1848): Resulted in the U.S. annexation of vast territories including California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
• Trail of Tears (1830s): The forced relocation of Cherokee and other Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). This tragic event resulted in immense suffering and loss of life.

Slavery and the Road to Civil War

The issue of slavery was a central and deeply divisive issue throughout American history. The institution of slavery had profound economic, social, and political consequences, ultimately leading to the Civil War.

The Abolitionist Movement:

The abolitionist movement, which advocated for the end of slavery, gained momentum in the early 19th century. Figures like Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman played significant roles in challenging the institution of slavery and fighting for the freedom of enslaved people.

Compromise of 1850:

This series of laws attempted to resolve the issue of slavery in newly acquired territories but ultimately failed to prevent the escalation of sectional tensions.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854):

This act allowed for popular sovereignty—allowing residents of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery—which led to violent clashes between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces. "Bleeding Kansas" became a symbol of the growing sectional divide.

Dred Scott Decision (1857):

This Supreme Court decision declared that enslaved people were not citizens and had no right to sue in federal court. It further fueled sectional tensions and strengthened the abolitionist movement.

Election of Abraham Lincoln (1860):

Lincoln's election, without a single Southern electoral vote, triggered the secession of Southern states, leading to the outbreak of the Civil War.

The Civil War and Reconstruction

The American Civil War (1861-1865) was a brutal and transformative conflict that pitted the Union (North) against the Confederacy (South). The war resulted in the abolition of slavery, the preservation of the Union, and profound changes in American society.

Key Battles and Figures of the Civil War:

• Key Union Figures: Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman.
• Key Confederate Figures: Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson.
• Significant Battles: Fort Sumter, Gettysburg, Vicksburg, Antietam, Appomattox Court House.

The Emancipation Proclamation (1863):

Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation declared the freedom of enslaved people in Confederate-held territories. It was a turning point in the war, shifting its focus from preserving the Union to ending slavery.

Reconstruction (1865-1877):

The period of Reconstruction following the Civil War aimed to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved people into American society. However, Reconstruction faced numerous challenges, including resistance from white Southerners and political divisions in the North.

Key Aspects of Reconstruction:

• Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments): Abolished slavery, granted citizenship to African Americans, and prohibited the denial of voting rights based on race.
• Freedmen's Bureau: Provided assistance to formerly enslaved people, including education, healthcare, and land distribution.
• Black Codes and Jim Crow Laws: Post-Reconstruction laws in the South that aimed to disenfranchise and oppress African Americans, effectively undermining the progress made during Reconstruction.

This study guide provides a comprehensive overview of American History Unit 2. Remember to consult your textbook, class notes, and other resources to further deepen your understanding of these crucial events and their lasting impacts on American society. Thorough study and understanding of this period are essential for a solid grasp of American history and its continuing evolution.