What Do Psychologists Call A Relatively Permanent Change In Behavior

What Do Psychologists Call a Relatively Permanent Change in Behavior? Learning and Its Mechanisms

Psychologists call a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience learning. It's a fundamental concept in psychology, underpinning a vast array of human and animal actions, thoughts, and feelings. This change isn't simply a temporary shift caused by fatigue or maturation; instead, it represents a lasting alteration in how an organism responds to its environment. This article will delve into the different types of learning, the mechanisms involved, and how psychologists study and understand this crucial process.

Types of Learning: Exploring Diverse Pathways to Change

Learning isn't a monolithic process; several distinct types shape our behavior. These include:

1. Classical Conditioning: Associating Stimuli

Classical conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, focuses on associative learning. It involves learning to associate two stimuli, resulting in a learned response. Pavlov's famous experiment with dogs demonstrated this: the initially neutral sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus) was paired with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), leading to salivation (unconditioned response). Eventually, the bell alone elicited salivation (conditioned response).

• Key Elements: The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally elicits a response. The neutral stimulus, after repeated pairings with the UCS, becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response.
• Examples: Fear responses (phobias), taste aversions, and many emotional responses are shaped by classical conditioning. The smell of freshly baked bread (CS) might trigger feelings of comfort and nostalgia (CR) due to associations formed with past experiences.

2. Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

Operant conditioning, championed by B.F. Skinner, emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping behavior. It proposes that behaviors followed by desirable outcomes (reinforcement) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by undesirable outcomes (punishment) are less likely to occur.

• Reinforcement: Increases the probability of a behavior. Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., giving a reward), while negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., removing a chore). Both strengthen the behavior.
• Punishment: Decreases the probability of a behavior. Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., giving a scolding), while negative punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away privileges). Both weaken the behavior.
• Examples: Studying diligently to get good grades (positive reinforcement), taking an aspirin to relieve a headache (negative reinforcement), receiving a speeding ticket (positive punishment), and losing phone privileges (negative punishment) are all examples of operant conditioning in action.

3. Observational Learning: Learning by Watching

Observational learning, or social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, highlights the importance of modeling and imitation. Individuals learn by observing the behaviors of others and their consequences. This doesn't require direct experience; instead, observing others can shape future behavior.

• Key Processes: Attention (observing the behavior), retention (remembering the behavior), reproduction (being able to perform the behavior), and motivation (having a reason to perform the behavior) are all crucial for successful observational learning.
• Examples: Children learning aggression by observing violent media, learning social skills by observing peers, and acquiring new job skills by watching a trainer are examples of the power of observational learning.

4. Cognitive Learning: Mental Processes and Learning

Cognitive learning emphasizes the role of mental processes in learning. It suggests that learning involves more than just stimulus-response associations; it also involves higher-order cognitive functions such as attention, memory, problem-solving, and insight.

• Key Aspects: This type of learning involves forming mental representations, understanding concepts, making inferences, and engaging in complex problem-solving.
• Examples: Learning a new language, mastering a musical instrument, or solving a complex mathematical problem all involve cognitive processes. The ability to strategize, plan, and reflect are all components of this type of learning.

Mechanisms of Learning: Delving into the Brain

Learning isn't just a behavioral phenomenon; it's a biological process involving changes in the brain. Several mechanisms underlie this neural plasticity:

1. Synaptic Plasticity: Strengthening Connections

Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of synapses (connections between neurons) to strengthen or weaken over time. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a key mechanism where repeated stimulation of a synapse leads to a long-lasting increase in its strength, making it easier for signals to pass through. This is thought to be a crucial cellular basis for learning and memory. Conversely, long-term depression (LTD) weakens synaptic connections, leading to a reduction in signal transmission. This process is equally important in refining and adjusting learned responses.

2. Neurogenesis: The Birth of New Neurons

Neurogenesis, the generation of new neurons, also plays a role in learning, particularly in certain brain regions like the hippocampus, which is crucial for memory formation. New neurons can integrate into existing neural circuits, contributing to learning and memory consolidation.

3. Neurotransmitter Systems: Chemical Messengers of Learning

Neurotransmitters, chemical messengers in the brain, play a vital role in synaptic plasticity. Glutamate, for instance, is a key excitatory neurotransmitter involved in LTP, while dopamine is implicated in reward-based learning and motivation. These chemicals shape the strength and efficiency of synaptic connections, fundamentally influencing learning.

Studying Learning: Psychological Methods

Psychologists employ various methods to investigate learning:

1. Controlled Experiments: Isolating Variables

Controlled experiments involve manipulating an independent variable (e.g., type of reinforcement) and observing its effect on a dependent variable (e.g., learning performance). This allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships between specific learning factors and behavioral outcomes.

2. Observational Studies: Naturalistic Observation

Observational studies involve observing behavior in natural settings without manipulating variables. This approach provides insights into learning in real-world contexts, revealing the complexities of learning in natural environments. Ethologists frequently use this method to observe animal learning behaviors.

3. Case Studies: In-depth Examination

Case studies provide in-depth analyses of individual cases, often involving detailed observations and interviews. This method is particularly useful for studying unique learning patterns or neurological conditions impacting learning processes. However, the generalizability of findings from case studies can be limited.

Applications of Learning Principles: Real-World Impact

Understanding learning principles has profound implications for various areas:

1. Education: Optimizing Learning Environments

Educators utilize learning principles to design effective teaching methods. Techniques like positive reinforcement, spaced repetition, and active learning are all grounded in learning theory, aiming to optimize learning outcomes.

2. Therapy: Addressing Behavioral Problems

Psychotherapies, such as behavioral therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), employ learning principles to address various behavioral problems, including phobias, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse. These therapies use techniques like classical conditioning (exposure therapy) and operant conditioning (contingency management) to modify maladaptive behaviors.

3. Animal Training: Shaping Behavior

Animal trainers use operant conditioning techniques to train animals for various purposes, from assisting people with disabilities to performing in entertainment. Understanding reinforcement and punishment principles is crucial for effective animal training.

4. Marketing and Advertising: Influencing Consumer Behavior

Marketing and advertising professionals utilize learning principles to influence consumer behavior. Techniques like classical conditioning (associating products with positive emotions) and operant conditioning (rewarding purchases with discounts) are frequently used to promote products and increase sales.

Conclusion: The Enduring Significance of Learning

Learning, the relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience, remains a central theme in psychology. Understanding the various types of learning—classical, operant, observational, and cognitive—and the underlying neural mechanisms, is essential for improving human well-being and tackling real-world challenges. From optimizing educational practices to developing effective therapies and influencing consumer behavior, the principles of learning have far-reaching applications. Further research continues to unveil the intricate details of this remarkable process, offering a deeper comprehension of human and animal behavior. The ongoing exploration of learning mechanisms at the neurological and behavioral levels promises to further illuminate this crucial aspect of life.